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<h1 class="title">Theory of OHI</h1>
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<figcaption>Credit: Body of Water during Dawn, Pixabay</figcaption>
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<section id="a-comprehensive-framework-to-assess-ocean-health" class="level2">
<h2 class="anchored" data-anchor-id="a-comprehensive-framework-to-assess-ocean-health">A comprehensive framework to assess ocean health</h2>
<p>The Ocean Health Index assesses ocean health which we define as how well we are sustainably managing the resources that we want and need from the ocean (e.g., tourism and recreation, food provisioning).</p>
<p>The OHI combines many indicators into a comprehensive framework describing ocean health. This is in contrast to focusing on individual indicators, such as phosphate levels, sedimentation, biodiversity, etc. Individual indicators are important, but they provide limited information when it comes to evaluating how well an overall ecosystem is functioning. They also fail to directly assess what we actually care about in most cases, and consequently, focusing on them can hinder communication. For example, most people do not directly care about nutrient pollution, however, we do care about its effects on the ocean’s ability to provide recreation and food.</p>
<p>Without an overall framework to evaluate indicators, certain indicators may be overemphasized relative to their true importance due to researcher bias (most researchers believe their area of study is the most important), trends in research (what is currently considered a hot topic and is funded), and availability of data (e.g., some data is easier to collect). A model that combines multiple indicators will inevitably have flaws, but at least we know which variables are included and how they are weighted.</p>
</section>
<section id="the-role-of-humans" class="level2">
<h2 class="anchored" data-anchor-id="the-role-of-humans">The role of humans</h2>
<p>One of the primary contributions of the OHI is that it recognizes people are an important part of the marine system. Both conservation and extractive use of ocean resources are valued, and consequently, scores are highest when we maximize the benefits we receive while maintaining sustainability so we can continue to receive benefits now and into the future. One temptation of indicator development is to focus only on the pressures that humans apply to systems. This makes sense because we want to be sure we are adequately protecting resources. However, eliminating all pressures on the ocean would require eliminating all contact between humans and the ocean. Beyond being unrealistic, this is undesirable because we would stop receiving all the benefits that we rely on from the ocean. The OHI is unique because it tracks both the pressures we put on oceans as well as the benefits we receive.</p>
</section>
<section id="yearly-assessments" class="level2">
<h2 class="anchored" data-anchor-id="yearly-assessments">Yearly assessments</h2>
<p>The global Ocean Health Index has been assessed every year since 2012. The primary goal of each yearly assessment is to calculate a new year of scores using the most recent data. Often, in addition to incorporating an additional year of data, we make improvements to models or decide to use different data sources. To ensure that scores for all years are comparable, we recalculate scores for previous scenario years for each assessment using new methods and data sources. For the current assessment, for example, in addition to calculating the current year’s scores, we recalculate scores for every year since 2012. Consequently, comparisons among years should always be performed using data from the same assessment year so trends in scores reflect changes to ocean health rather than changes to methods.</p>
<p>Not all data layers are reported through the most current assessment year, and consequently, the OHI scores are calculated using the most recent year of available data. Details on which years are used for each data layer are provided in Table 7.2.</p>
<div class="callout callout-style-default callout-note callout-titled">
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Table 7.2. Data sources used to create data layers (click to expand)
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<th style="text-align: left;">Reference</th>
<th style="text-align: left;">Description</th>
<th style="text-align: left;">Years</th>
<th style="text-align: left;">Resolution</th>
<th style="text-align: left;">Updated</th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="allen_coral_atlas_allen_2025">Atlas (<a href="#ref-allen_coral_atlas_allen_2025" role="doc-biblioref">2025</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Allen Coral Atlas’ global coral habitat map for reef extent (2025 release)</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2010-2025</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1m</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="anderson2018stock">Anderson (<a href="#ref-anderson2018stock" role="doc-biblioref">2018</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">R code to conduct data-limited stocks assessments</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">NA</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">NA</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="aviso2024">AVISO (<a href="#ref-aviso2024" role="doc-biblioref">2024</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Net change in sea level during the time series</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1993-2022</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">0.25 deg</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">y</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="behrenfeld1997photosynthetic">Behrenfeld and Falkowski (<a href="#ref-behrenfeld1997photosynthetic" role="doc-biblioref">1997</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Methods: Net Primary Productivity</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2003-2017</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">0.83 x 0.83 deg</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">NA</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="birdlife_international_and_handbook_of_the_birds_of_the_world_birdlife_2025">BirdLife International and Handbook of the Birds of the World (<a href="#ref-birdlife_international_and_handbook_of_the_birds_of_the_world_birdlife_2025" role="doc-biblioref">2025</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Status and distribution of marine bird species</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2024</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Global</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="mcowen2017">Mcowen et al. (<a href="#ref-mcowen2017" role="doc-biblioref">2017</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Global salt marsh extent and condition</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1973-2015</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Global</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="campbell2022">Campbell et al. (<a href="#ref-campbell2022" role="doc-biblioref">2022</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Global salt marsh trend</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">NA</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Global</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="bruno_regional_2016">Bruno and Selig (<a href="#ref-bruno_regional_2016" role="doc-biblioref">2007</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Global coral condition</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2002,1980-2009,2006</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">0.5 km; 1 km; Sites (points)</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="bunting2022global">Bunting et al. (<a href="#ref-bunting2022global" role="doc-biblioref">2022</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Global mangrove habitat extent based on satellite imagery — used to calculate mangrove extent and trend</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1996-2020</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Polygons rasterized to 1km</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="burke2011reefs">Burke et al. (<a href="#ref-burke2011reefs" role="doc-biblioref">2011</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Presence of artisanal blast and poison (cyanide) fishing practices</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2009</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">10 km</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="burke2011reefs">Burke et al. (<a href="#ref-burke2011reefs" role="doc-biblioref">2011</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Global coral condition and trend</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2002,1980-2009,2006</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">0.5 km; 1 km; Sites (points)</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="digirolamo2022">DiGirolamo et al. (<a href="#ref-digirolamo2022" role="doc-biblioref">2022</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Sea ice extent, condition and trend; edge and shoreline metrics</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1979-2023</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">25 km</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">y</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="centerforinternationalearthscienceinformationnetworkciesin2000gridded">Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN) et al. (<a href="#ref-centerforinternationalearthscienceinformationnetworkciesin2000gridded" role="doc-biblioref">2000</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Raster data of human population</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2000-2020</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">30 arcsec</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">y, improved</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="cites_member_2015">CITES (<a href="#ref-cites_member_2015" role="doc-biblioref">2015</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Countries that signed the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2017</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="claus2012marine">Claus et al. (<a href="#ref-claus2012marine" role="doc-biblioref">2012</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Land and ocean areas for OHI land and eez regions</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2013</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1 km</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="clawson_global_2025">Clawson, Blanchard, and Novaglio (<a href="#ref-clawson_global_2025" role="doc-biblioref">2025</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">modeled global fishing effort (bottom trawling)</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2010-2017</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1 deg</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="convention_on_biological_diversity_3rd_2005">Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (<a href="#ref-convention_on_biological_diversity_3rd_2005" role="doc-biblioref">2005</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Convention on Biological Diversity: Data from Third National Report for regulation of alien species, habitat, mariculture, tourism, and water to preserve biodiversity</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2005</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="edffrance2011electricite">France (<a href="#ref-edffrance2011electricite" role="doc-biblioref">2011</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">La Rance (France) and Annapolis (Canada) tidal plants employment data</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2003-2010</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Points (sites)</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="eriksen2014plastic">Eriksen et al. (<a href="#ref-eriksen2014plastic" role="doc-biblioref">2014</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Plastic trash pollution in ocean</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2014</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">0.2 deg</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="esri_2010">Esri (<a href="#ref-esri_2010" role="doc-biblioref">2010</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Land and ocean areas for OHI land and eez regions</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2013</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1 km</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="free2017mapping">Free (<a href="#ref-free2017mapping" role="doc-biblioref">2017</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Maps of fish stock boundaries for the original RAM Myers stock-recruit database</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2017</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Stock</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="gentry2019exploring">Gentry et al. (<a href="#ref-gentry2019exploring" role="doc-biblioref">2019</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Aquaculture potential for finfish and bivalves.</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2017</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">0.0083 deg</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="global_coral_reef_monitoring_network_status_2020">Network (<a href="#ref-global_coral_reef_monitoring_network_status_2020" role="doc-biblioref">2020</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">A report on the change in coral and algal cover from 1980 through 2020 in GCRMN regions</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1980-2020</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">NA</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="halpern2008global">Halpern et al. (<a href="#ref-halpern2008global" role="doc-biblioref">2008</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Modeled pollution from urban runoff from impervious surfaces</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2000</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1 km</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="halpern2008global">Halpern et al. (<a href="#ref-halpern2008global" role="doc-biblioref">2008</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Modeled pollution from pesticides</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1990-2013</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1 km (FAO data is National)</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="halpern2008global">Halpern et al. (<a href="#ref-halpern2008global" role="doc-biblioref">2008</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Modeled pollution from shipping and ports</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2003/2011</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1 km</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="halpern2008global">Halpern et al. (<a href="#ref-halpern2008global" role="doc-biblioref">2008</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Modeled N input from fertilizer use as a proxy for nutrient pollution</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1990-2013</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1 km (FAO data is National)</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="halpern2008global">Halpern et al. (<a href="#ref-halpern2008global" role="doc-biblioref">2008</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Global rocky reef habitat extent</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2005</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2 arcmin; Points</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="halpern2015spatial">Halpern, Frazier, et al. (<a href="#ref-halpern2015spatial" role="doc-biblioref">2015</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Global soft-bottom subtidal habitat extent</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2001-2005</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">0.5 deg</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="halpern2012index">Halpern et al. (<a href="#ref-halpern2012index" role="doc-biblioref">2012</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">WWF Priority and Flagship Species Lists</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2011</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Global; National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="halpern2012index">Halpern et al. (<a href="#ref-halpern2012index" role="doc-biblioref">2012</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Land and ocean areas for OHI land and eez regions</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2013</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1 km</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="halpern2015patterns">Halpern, Longo, et al. (<a href="#ref-halpern2015patterns" role="doc-biblioref">2015</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Land and ocean areas for OHI land and eez regions</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2013</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1 km</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="halpern2015spatial">Halpern, Frazier, et al. (<a href="#ref-halpern2015spatial" role="doc-biblioref">2015</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Modeled pollution from shipping and ports</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2003/2011</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1 km</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="bunting2022global">Bunting et al. (<a href="#ref-bunting2022global" role="doc-biblioref">2022</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Global mangrove habitat extent and trend, from remote sensing and assessments</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1996-2016</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Polygons rasterized to 1km</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="homer2004development">Homer et al. (<a href="#ref-homer2004development" role="doc-biblioref">2004</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Modeled pollution from urban runoff from impervious surfaces</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2000</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1 km</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="international_labour_organization_average_2025">International Labour Organization (<a href="#ref-international_labour_organization_average_2025" role="doc-biblioref">2025</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Average monthly earnings of employees by sex and economic activity</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2009-2023</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">annual</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="iucn_iucn_2025">IUCN (<a href="#ref-iucn_iucn_2025" role="doc-biblioref">2025b</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">IUCN Red List of threatened species by category; sub-population status for iconic species</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1965-2024</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Global</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">y</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="iucn_spatial_2025">IUCN (<a href="#ref-iucn_spatial_2025" role="doc-biblioref">2025a</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">IUCN spatial distribution</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2024</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Polygons rasterized to 0.5 deg</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">y</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="jambeck2015plastic">Jambeck et al. (<a href="#ref-jambeck2015plastic" role="doc-biblioref">2015</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Trends in mismanaged plastic waste for 2010 and projected for 2025 as a proxy for trash trends</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2010-2025 (projected)</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="jarihovila2013">Jari Hovila (<a href="#ref-jarihovila2013" role="doc-biblioref">2013</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Anomalies in intensity of ultraviolet (UV) radiation</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2005-2024</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1 deg</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">y</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="kaufmann2010worldwide">Kaufmann, Kraay, and Mastruzzi (<a href="#ref-kaufmann2010worldwide" role="doc-biblioref">2010</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Methods: Accountability, Political Stability and Absence of Violence, Government Effectiveness, Regulatory Quality, Rule of Law, and Control of Corruption</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">NA</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">NA</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">NA</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="chen_tidal_2022">Chen and Lee (<a href="#ref-chen_tidal_2022" role="doc-biblioref">2022</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Carbon sequestration by habitat</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2022</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">habitat</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="lebakula_ornl_2024">Lebakula et al. (<a href="#ref-lebakula_ornl_2024" role="doc-biblioref">2024</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Raster of data of human population</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2000-2023</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Global</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="lewis2017largescale">Lewis et al. (<a href="#ref-lewis2017largescale" role="doc-biblioref">2017</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Methods: Location and area of marine and terrestrial protected areas manual</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">NA</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">NA</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">NA</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="luijendijk_et_al_state_2018">Luijendijk et al. (<a href="#ref-luijendijk_et_al_state_2018" role="doc-biblioref">2018</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">A scientific report on the deterioration of sandy beaches</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2018</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">NA</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="martell2016simple">Martell and Froese (<a href="#ref-martell2016simple" role="doc-biblioref">2013</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Methods: Data-limited stock assessments</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">NA</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">NA</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">NA</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="sdg_14_b_1">Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (<a href="#ref-sdg_14_b_1" role="doc-biblioref">2023</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Management effectiveness and access of artisanal fisheries</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2018-2022</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="noaa2023">NOAA (<a href="#ref-noaa2023" role="doc-biblioref">2022</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Sea surface temperature anomalies</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1982-2022</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">4 km</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="ncei_ncei_2025">NCEI (<a href="#ref-ncei_ncei_2025" role="doc-biblioref">2025</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National Centers for Environmental Information Marine Microplastics geodatabase</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2021-2025</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">5m</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="oconnor_whale_2009">O’Connor et al. (<a href="#ref-oconnor_whale_2009" role="doc-biblioref">2009</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Jobs based on number of whale watchers in a country and a regional average number of whale watchers per employee. Includes all marine mammal watching.</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1998-2008</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="oconnor_whale_2009">O’Connor et al. (<a href="#ref-oconnor_whale_2009" role="doc-biblioref">2009</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Total revenue from marine mammal watching</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1998-2008</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="organisation_for_economic_co-operation_and_development_oecd_employment_2025">Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (<a href="#ref-organisation_for_economic_co-operation_and_development_oecd_employment_2025" role="doc-biblioref">2025</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Employment in fisheries, aquaculture, and processing</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2009-2023</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">annual</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="omalleyocean">O’Malley (<a href="#ref-omalleyocean" role="doc-biblioref">n.d.</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Net Primary Productivity database</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2003-2015</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">0.083 deg</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="oostendorp2012occupational">Oostendorp and Freeman (<a href="#ref-oostendorp2012occupational" role="doc-biblioref">2012</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Occupations within commercial fishing, ports and harbors, ship and boat building, tourism, and transportation and shipping</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1989-2008</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="ramlegacystockassessmentdatabase2024">RAM Legacy Stock Assessment Database (<a href="#ref-ramlegacystockassessmentdatabase2024" role="doc-biblioref">2024</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Stock assesment scores data</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1800-2023</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Stock</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">y</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="ricard2012examining">Ricard et al. (<a href="#ref-ricard2012examining" role="doc-biblioref">2012</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Methods: Stock assesment RAM data</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">NA</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">NA</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">NA</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="rosenberg2014developing">Rosenberg et al. (<a href="#ref-rosenberg2014developing" role="doc-biblioref">2014</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Methods: Data-limited stocks assessments</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">NA</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">NA</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">NA</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="schutte2010regional">Schutte, Selig, and Bruno (<a href="#ref-schutte2010regional" role="doc-biblioref">2010</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Global coral change in condition</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2002,1980-2009,2006</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">0.5 km; 1 km; Sites (points)</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="schwab2017global">Schwab (<a href="#ref-schwab2017global" role="doc-biblioref">2017</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Composite measure of 12 aspects of economic competitiveness</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2007-2017</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="iucn_spatial_2025">IUCN (<a href="#ref-iucn_spatial_2025" role="doc-biblioref">2025a</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Threatened Species Distribution maps (i.e., spatial data) published on the IUCN Red List</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2025</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">hexagonal grid system called the ISEA10 grid</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="unep-wcmc2005">UNEP-WCMC and Short (<a href="#ref-unep-wcmc2005" role="doc-biblioref">2005</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Global seagrass habitat extent</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1934-2020</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Spatial cell scale</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="socialprogressindex2022">Social Progress Index (<a href="#ref-socialprogressindex2022" role="doc-biblioref">2021</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Index measuring quality of life indicators</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2011-2022</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="stern2021">Stern et al. (<a href="#ref-stern2021" role="doc-biblioref">2021</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Methods: Index measuring quality of life indicators</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">NA</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">NA</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">NA</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="tallis2011invest">Tallis et al. (<a href="#ref-tallis2011invest" role="doc-biblioref">2011</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Ranks of coastal protection provided by habitats</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2011</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">habitat</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="thorbourne2011annapolis">Thorbourne (<a href="#ref-thorbourne2011annapolis" role="doc-biblioref">2011</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">La Rance (France) and Annapolis (Canada) tidal plants employment data</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2003-2010</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Points (sites)</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="travaille2022minderoo">Travaille et al. (<a href="#ref-travaille2022minderoo" role="doc-biblioref">2022</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Regional fisheries governance scores based on various metrics of government capacity to improve fisheries</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2021</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="2022global"><span>“Global <span>Fishing</span> <span>Watch</span> <span></span> <span>Data</span> Download Portal”</span> (<a href="#ref-2022global" role="doc-biblioref">2022</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Global Datasets of AIS-based Fishing Effort and Vessel Presence</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2012-2020</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">0.01 deg</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="unep-wcmcandiucn2024">UNEP-WCMC and IUCN (<a href="#ref-unep-wcmcandiucn2024" role="doc-biblioref">2024</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Location and area of marine and terrestrial protected areas</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1819-2023</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Shapefile</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">y</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="un-fao_fao_2025">UN-FAO (<a href="#ref-un-fao_fao_2025" role="doc-biblioref">2025</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Export tonnes and value (US dollars) and of coral, ornamental fish, fish oil, sponges, shells, and seaweeds and plants</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1976-2023</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Global</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">y</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="unitednations2013faoa">Nations (<a href="#ref-unitednations2013faoa" role="doc-biblioref">2013b</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Total revenue from commercial marine fishing</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1997-2007</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="unitednations2013faoa">Nations (<a href="#ref-unitednations2013faoa" role="doc-biblioref">2013b</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Total revenue from mariculture production of marine species</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1977-2011</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="unitednations2013faob">Nations (<a href="#ref-unitednations2013faob" role="doc-biblioref">2013a</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Revenue of Aquarium Trade Fishing derived from commodities database</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1984-2009</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="united_nations_fao_2016">Nations (<a href="#ref-united_nations_fao_2016" role="doc-biblioref">2016</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Pesticide application data</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1990-2013</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1 km (FAO data is National)</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="unitednations2021faostat">United Nations (<a href="#ref-unitednations2021faostat" role="doc-biblioref">2021</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">N excreted in manure data</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2005-2019</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1km (FAO data is National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="unitednations2022faostata">United Nations (<a href="#ref-unitednations2022faostata" role="doc-biblioref">2022</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Fertilizer application data</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2005-2020</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1 km (FAO data is National)</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="unitednations2024a">United Nations (<a href="#ref-unitednations2024a" role="doc-biblioref">2024</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Production of finfish, seaweeds, and invertebrates</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1950-2022</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">y</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="united_nations_fao_2025-1">United Nations (<a href="#ref-united_nations_fao_2025-1" role="doc-biblioref">2025</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Catch statistics for cetaceans and marine turtles</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1950-2023</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">y</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="unitednationspersonalcommunication2011fao">communication (<a href="#ref-unitednationspersonalcommunication2011fao" role="doc-biblioref">2011</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Global Number of Fishers, commercial fishing</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1990-2008</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="unitednationspersonalcommunication2011fao">communication (<a href="#ref-unitednationspersonalcommunication2011fao" role="doc-biblioref">2011</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Global Number of Fishers, aquaculture</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1993-2008</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="unitednations2012statistics">Nations (<a href="#ref-unitednations2012statistics" role="doc-biblioref">2012</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Total revenue from marine renewable energy</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1990/2001-2010/2008</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="unitednations2007world">Nations (<a href="#ref-unitednations2007world" role="doc-biblioref">2007</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Global mangrove extents estimated by the FAO and used to define reference points for mangrove condition</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1980/1990/2000/2005</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Country</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="pauly2020">Pauly, Zeller, and Palomareas (<a href="#ref-pauly2020" role="doc-biblioref">2020</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Sea Around Us Project: Fisheries catch by species and country</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1950-2019</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="watson2019global">Watson (<a href="#ref-watson2019global" role="doc-biblioref">2019</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Fisheries catch by species and gear type (tonnes/km2)</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1950-2017</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">0.5 deg</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="waycott2009accelerating">Waycott et al. (<a href="#ref-waycott2009accelerating" role="doc-biblioref">2009</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Global seagrass habitat change in condition and trends</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1879-2007</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1 km, National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="wefttdi2024">WEF (<a href="#ref-wefttdi2024" role="doc-biblioref">2024</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Index that measures the set of factors and policies that enable the sustainable and resilient development of the Travel and Tourism sector</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2023</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">y, new publication</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="who-unicef2024">WHO-UNICEF (<a href="#ref-who-unicef2024" role="doc-biblioref">2024</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Percent population without access to improved sanitation facilities</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2000-2022</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="worldbank2014gdp">Bank (<a href="#ref-worldbank2014gdp" role="doc-biblioref">2014</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Gross Domestic Product; Adjustment to all revenue data layers to factor out global economic fluctuations, in 2012 $USD</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1960-2012</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="worldbank2024">World Bank (<a href="#ref-worldbank2024" role="doc-biblioref">2023a</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Per capita purchasing power parity (PPP) adjusted gross domestic product (GDP): GDPpcPPP</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1990-2023</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">y</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="worldbank2014labor">World Bank (<a href="#ref-worldbank2014labor" role="doc-biblioref">2014a</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Number of people aged 15 and older who could contribute to the production of goods and services</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1990-2011</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="worldbank2016population">Bank (<a href="#ref-worldbank2016population" role="doc-biblioref">2016</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Census populations for countries</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1990-2012</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="worldbank2014unemployment">World Bank (<a href="#ref-worldbank2014unemployment" role="doc-biblioref">2014b</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Percent of the labor force unemployed but able to and looking for work</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1990-2011</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="worldbank2024wgi">WorldBank (<a href="#ref-worldbank2024wgi" role="doc-biblioref">2024</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Accountability, Political Stability and Absence of Violence, Government Effectiveness, Regulatory Quality, Rule of Law, and Control of Corruption</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1996-2022</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">y</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="wttc2013world">WTTC (<a href="#ref-wttc2013world" role="doc-biblioref">2013</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Total contribution of tourism to employment</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1988-2012</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="wttc2013world">WTTC (<a href="#ref-wttc2013world" role="doc-biblioref">2013</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Total tourism revenue by country, adjusted by country’s relative proportion of coastal area</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1998-2012</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="froehlich2020avoiding">Froehlich (<a href="#ref-froehlich2020avoiding" role="doc-biblioref">2018</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Avoiding the ecological limits of forage fish for fed aquaculture</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2018</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Stock</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="2023monterey"><span>“Monterey <span>Bay</span> <span>Aquarium</span> <span>Seafood</span> <span>Watch</span>”</span> (<a href="#ref-2023monterey" role="doc-biblioref">2023</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Scores for the sustainability of seafood</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2023</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Stock</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="unep-wcmc2018global">UNEP-WCMC et al. (<a href="#ref-unep-wcmc2018global" role="doc-biblioref">2018</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Global Distribution of Coral Reefs</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1954 - 2018</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="jayathilake2020modelled">Jayathilake and Costello (<a href="#ref-jayathilake2020modelled" role="doc-biblioref">2020</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">A modeled global distribution of the kelp biome; kelp extent, kelp health</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1900-2020</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Polygons rasterized to 1km</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="wernberg2019status">Wernberg et al. (<a href="#ref-wernberg2019status" role="doc-biblioref">2019</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Global kelp forest condition</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1969-2019</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Global</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="spalding2007marine">Spalding et al. (<a href="#ref-spalding2007marine" role="doc-biblioref">2007</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Classification of the world’s marine ecoregions</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">2007</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Ecoregion</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="odd">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="krumhansl2016global">Krumhansl et al. (<a href="#ref-krumhansl2016global" role="doc-biblioref">2016</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Global kelp trends</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">1983-2012</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">National</td>
<td style="text-align: left;">n</td>
</tr>
<tr class="even">
<td style="text-align: left;"><span class="citation" data-cites="tuholske2021">Tuholske et al. (<a href="#ref-tuholske2021" role="doc-biblioref">2021</a>)</span></td>
<td style="text-align: left;">Global wastewater methods</td>